CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION Unit No. 1.1
Unit Introduction
Page No. 2
1.2
Tribal Definition
4
1.3
Tribal Population in India
6
1.4
Tribes in Maharashtra
9
1.5
Tribal Area in Maharashtra
15
1.6
Tribes in Ahmednagar District
16
1.7
Child Mortality, Malnutrition and Tribals
18
1.8
Statement of Problem
19
1.9
Selection of Study Area
20
1.10
Hypothesis
20
1.11
Objectives
21
1.12
Methodology and Techniques
21
1.12.1
Data Base
21
1.12.2
Primary Data
21
1.12.3
Secondary Data
22
1.12.4
Methodology
22
1.12.5
Techniques
23
1.13
Limitations of Study
23
1.14
Review of Literature
23
1.15
Resume
36
1
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction: It is estimated that there are 370 million indigenous people living on the surface of the earth across 70 countries. These tribes are located mainly in Central Africa, South America, Oceania, India and Australia. It is noted that tribes are indigenous part of Indian subcontinent because India is one of the largest tribal population countries in the world and the second largest tribal population, next to Africa continent is found in India. These aborigines are among the oldest group of India. There are 450 tribes, sub divided into groups, spread over the length and breadth of country, and concentrated mostly in the hilly and forest region. These tribes were initially resided in plane areas and river valleys but after the invasions of Aryans they retreated in to hilly forested and mountains area for their protection. Tribes are the original dwellers of our country who were pushed from the productive plains in to the more unreachable, remote, inhospitable slopes, hills and foresats by straight ware of attackers. Now over the centuries they accepted their habitat permanently. According to Aijazuddin Ahmed (2008) presence of tribal in the regions of their present concentration was outcome of the dynamics of ethnic displacement within the country, many tribal folklore in all region of country is full of references to the history of displacement of tribes from their earlier habitat. The tribes usually live by the fringe of the river valleys in the forested hilly or upland tracts.1 They came in several streams of migration and occupied the tracts closer to the entry points, till non tribal forced them to leave their original homelands, Therefore tribes are found today in the hilly and forested tracts on the fringe of the river valleys. Naturally these kinds of areas are not suitable for agriculture, yet these tribes are engaged in sedentary agricultural activities as they are economically backward. These tribes lived in ecological setup outer surface of the framework of peasant agriculture until they were overtaken by the colonial 2
mode of exploitation of natural resources. Various tribal groups are at various stages of social, economic & educational development and these stages are differentin every tribe. Some tribes easily match and adapt to the mainstream way of life where as certain tribes known as primitive tribal groupscan not do so. Rajpramukha, K.E. (2012) has stated that rigorous environment has fostered physical and social isolation form long ago, the tribals communities are have developed their own traditional mode of living. These communities having different ethno-lingual groups and they belong to diverse faiths.2Since long back, tribals were backward in all aspects like health, education and economic progress. Tribals were ignored in the process of development in the British age. It is clearly explain by Samantarary,P.C.(1999) that during British empire, the tribals were completely neglected due to the policy of ‘leave them alone’, which kept them isolate and deprived from fruits of scientific and technological advancement in lifestyle, cultures and languages.3 After independence situation of tribals did not improved up to expectations. Even today they face major problems like education and economic backwardness. Unfortunately even after 67 years of Independence, tribals are away from general progress of country, lying in downward strata of development and being exploited for generations. The constitution of India has provided security justice, liberty, equality and fraternity for all citizens. Nutrient food and good health is right of every citizen.Ailaiah, K. (2003) has stated that Article 46 of the constitution lays down that the state shall promote with special care regarding education and economic interests of the weaker section of people and in particular, of the scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.4 Tribal economy is based on food gathering, grazing, forestry and agriculture. The land they have got is very small that cannot support family to survive.Therefore now a days the tribal, whose main occupation is agriculture, look upon forest for subsidiary occupation because traditionally livelihood pattern of tribals have undergone significant changes due to removal of forest 3
cover, encroachment on land and water, dams, irrigation and hydra project which compel them to adopt subsistence agriculture. Due to dependency upon sedentary occupations, these people remain poor. Poverty and misery become main causes of ill health, malnutrition, and child mortality in tribals. There are many tribal habitats in the states which are recognized as malnutrition capitals. These regions are also known for infant and child mortality. In Maharashtra, Melghat is one of such areas where Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) was as high as 48 in 2010-11, significantly, higher than the state average of 33.According to Times of India (2013), Thane district (833) stands second on the list of child death in the state after Nasik (1563).Sangli has registered 427 and Buldhana 808 child deaths in 2012-13.It is very clear that districts with tribal majority often exhibit higher child and infant mortality.5 Therefore present study aims to find out proportion of malnutrition and child mortality in Akole tehsil of Ahmednagar District. Present study aims to find out child mortality and malnutrition of Mahadev Koli and Thakar tribes. The study is confined to state of malnutrition and child mortality in the study area and suggests remedies to overcome the problem. 1.2 Tribal Definition: There are nearly 450 tribal groups and subgroups in India including Gond, Bhil, Santhal, Mahadeo Koli, Naga, Mathuvan, Bakrawal etc. These tribes are popularly known as Adivasi, Vanyajati, and Adimjati etc.The word Adivasi denotes the first or ancient dweller from unrecorded time. The term Adivasi (Adi - old / Ancient and Vasi - Inhabitant) was derived from Sanskrit word. The tribe is a homogenous and self contained unit without any hierarchical discrimination. There is no standardized definition about tribes. According to Annual Report (2007-08) There should be know these essential characteristic of tribes laid down by Lokur Committee, for community to be identified as scheduled tribes.They are primitive traits, distinctive culture, shyness of contact with community at large, geographical isolation and socio-economic backwardness.6 Therefore, to 4
understand the term ‘tribe’ more precisely, some important definitions are given here. According to Oxford English Dictionary (1989) “A group descended from common ancestor”.7 According to Aijazuddin Ahmed (1999) “ The tribe is a society within political, linguistic and somewhat defined cultural boundary, farther as society based upon kinship, where social stratification is about to be absent.”8 According to Vidyarthi, L.P. (1985) The tribe is social group with definite territory, common name common district, common culture, behavior of an endogamous group, common taboos , existence of distinctive political system, full faith in leaders and self efficiency in their distinct leaders and self efficiency in their distinct economy.9 Dr.Ghurye named Indian tribes as Backward Hindus.10 The term tribe has not been defined clear anywhere in Indian constitution. Only Article 342 provides specification of the term scheduled Tribe. It explains as “The tribe or tribal communities or part of group within tribes” are presumed to be formed of oldest ethnological sector of the people”. According to Mujumdar, D.N. and Madan, T.N. (1961) In Indian context a tribe is defined as a group with traditional territory, specific Name, common language, strong keen relationship, association. with clan structure, tribal authority and rigid inclination to religion and relief functional independence, homogeneity, primitive means of exploiting resources economic backwardness, rich culture and tradition and least desire to change are some of the other characteristics dominant among tribes11.In Tribal Research Bulletin (1998) it is mentined that India is considered to be an anthropological laboratory because of its regional, religious, ethnic, racial and linguistic diversities.12 The above definitions give clear idea about tribe which is a separate group of persons having their own identity and cultural characteristics. They have their traditional mode to manage the group. Tribals have some rigid and customary laws, which are unwritten but firmly followed by them. Salient Features of Tribal Area: 1. Tribal groups are original dwellers of Indian subcontinent and they have descended from oldest ethnological sections of population. 5
2. Tribal groups are different from non-tribals in social-cultural and economic set up. 3.It is one of the distinct characteristics of tribal economy that diverse part of tribal areas are at the different levels of economic development which is based on habitat of tribe and proximity to centres of industrialization and urbanization . 4. Tribal livelihood ranges from food gathering, grazing, forestry, Agriculture and cottage industry. In all these primitive and sedentary type of agriculture and small or no use of technology is typical characteristic among tribals. 5. Most of the tribal groups are rigid and strong in obeying and preserving and their distinct cultural heritage. For them social and cultural values are more important than economic status. Therefore they live in remote and inaccessible area and hesitate to communicate with non tribals. 6. Tribal areas are forested to a great extent with undulating topography, and rough structure, likewise described by poor soil fertility, gully erosion, adverse atmosphere and interior. 7. ‘Production for consumption not for distribution’ is another important characteristic of tribals. 8. Every tribal society has distinct cultural features, but in all tribes status of women is higher than male in tribals. 1.3 Tribal Population in India: Rajpramukha, R.E. (2012) has stated that the tribal population in India is larger than that of any other country in the world. The tribes constitute nine percent of the country’s total population which ranks second in concern of tribal population world after Africa continent.Tribal population in India is unevenly distributed. The tribal communities live in about 15 percent area of the country, in various ecological and geoclimatic conditions ranging from plains and forests to hills and inaccessible areas.13 The tribal population of India, according to 2011 Census is 10.45 crores, constituting 8.63 percent of total population of country. In 2001 Census enumeration tribal population was 8.43 crores and 8.2 percent of total population of the country. 6
The distribution pattern of tribal communities shows their tendency of clustering certain pockets which are hilly, undulating, forested, isolated and inaccessible. Khullar, D.R. (2007) has stated that out of 28 states, more than half of tribal population is concentrated in only 6 states like Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Orrisa, Jharkhand and Gujrat. There are no tribes that have been scheduled in Punjab and Haryana and union territories of Delhi, Chandigarh and Pondicherry.14 In case of tribal population distribution in India, The interstate variation has been observed.The states like Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Bihar and Utterpradesh were characterized by fertile alluvial plains and suitable for agriculture have either no tribal population or it is neglegible. All these states show very less tribal population and it is very low compared to national average of tribal population.On Peninsular Indian state like Tamilnadu and Kerala show little tribal population and it is also far below national average of tribal population. Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and West Bengal show somewhat higher proportion of tribal but below national Average. States like Gujrat, Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir and Assam shows 10 to 20 percent tribal population Madhya Pradesh, Orrisa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Tripura Manipur have very high tribal proportion concentrated in forested area. In these states tribal population are ranges from 20 to 40 percent. Small North East state like Mizoram, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya are characterized by ruggedness and hills and valley topography which support tribal population. These states have higher concentration of tribal population, which is more than 40 percent. The Graph No1.1 shows tribal population growth in India from 1961 to 2011.It is one of the important characteristics of tribal population in India.That it is continuously increasing, The tribal population in India rose from 30.1 million in 1961 to 104.3 million in 2011.For same period tribal residing in rural area have increased by three times from 29.4 million to 93.8 millions. The tribal population resides in urban area is very less in number, but it is increasing rapidly. In 1961, tribal population in urban area rose from 0.8 million to 10.5 million. 7
Map No.1.1: Percentage of Scheduled Tribe Population in India
Source: Census of India Abstract 2011 Population. GraphNo.1.1: Schedule Tribe Population in India
Source: Census of India 1961 to 2011. 8
Residence of tribal in urban area is less because these people like to live in the remote areas of the proximity of natural environment. Absence of such environment is major characteristic of cities which reduces tribal population. All these figures indicate positive growth in tribal population for registered period. 1.4 Tribes in Maharashtra: Several tribes are integral part of Maharashtrian culture. Different tribes like Warli, Katkari, Kokana, Mahadeo Koli, Bhil, Thakar, Andha, Gond, Kolam, Oranon, Paradhi, Halaba, and Tokre Koli dwell in certain pockets. Forests and Mountains play vital role of magnet for tribals. Therefore, majority of tribals were found in Sahyadri, Satpuda mountainous ranges. In Maharashtra, more than 50 indigenous tribes were dwelling. According to 2011 census, there are about 10,51,213 Tribal populations living in Maharashtra which constitutes 10.05 percent population of state. In 2001 Census Maharashtra state was homeland of 77,81,408 tribal populations which constitute 8.10 percent population of the state. There are three major geographical regions of tribes in Maharashtra. Table No.1.1: Geographical Regions of Tribals in Maharashtra Sr. Name of Districts No. Region 1.
2.
3.
Tribes
Sahyadri
Thane,
Raigad,
Nasik, Warli,Konkana,MahadevKoli,
Region
Ahmednagar, Pune
Satpuda
Dhule,Nandurbar,
Region
Aurangabad, Amravati
Dhanaka, Korku
Gondwan
Nagpur,Yawatmal,
Madia Gond, Korku, Kolam, Andh,
Region
Bhandara, Gadchiroli
Pardhan
Malhar Koli, Katkari, Thakar Jalgaon Bhil,
Kokana,
Gavits,
Dubala,
Source: Tribal Research Bulletin, TRTI, Pune.
The table No.1.1 shows three geographical tribal regions of Maharashtra state. The Sahyadri Region lays westward direction which includes rim land area of Sahyadri Mountain where Warli, Kokana, Mahadev Koli, Katkari and Thakar are major tribes. Second region is characterized by Satpuda Mountains in North where Bhil, Gavit, Dubala and Korku dwell. In Eastern Maharashtra Gadchiroli, Bhandara, Gondia come in Gondwana region. This region is inhabited by Madia Gond, Korku, Pardhan, Andh and Kolam tribes. Uneven distribution of tribes is 9
one of the important characteristics of tribal population of Maharashtra. Five districts of the state mainly Mumbai, Satara, Sindhudurg Kolhapur and Sangli categorized in negligible class where tribal population is below one percent. Sangli represents lowest tribal population of state with 0.65 percent whereas Satara exhibits 0.99 percent tribal population, which is highest in this class. Largest 18 districts come in low (1 to 10 percentage) category of tribal distribution.
10
Table No. 1.2: District Wise Residence of Tribes: 2001 Census Sr. No.
DISTRICT
Percent Tribal Population in District 8.1 0.6
ALL Warli, Thakar, Dubala, Dhodi Gond, Dhor Koli, Tokre Koli.
TRIBES
1
MAHARASHTRA MUMBAI CITY
2
MUMBAI SUB
0.8
Warli, Thakar, Dubala, Dhodi Gond, Dhor Koli, Tokre koli.
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
THANE RAIGAD RATNAGIRI SINDHUDURG NASIK DHULE NANDURBAR JALGAON AHMEDNAGAR PUNE SATARA SANGALI SOLAPUR
14.7 12.2 1.2 6.60 23.9 26.0 65.5 11.8 7.5 3.6 0.8 0.7 1.8
Katkari, Konkani, Warli, Dubala,Mahadeo and Dhor Koli Mahadeo Koli, Kathodi, Katkari Dong, Malhar Koli, Kathodi, Mahadeo Koli, Katkari. Kathodi, Mahadeo Koli, Thakar, Warli, Katkari Bhil, Kokana, Mahadeo Koli,Thakar,Warali, Kathodi, Katkari Bhil, Gavit, Kokana, Mahadeo ,Dhor and Dhanaka,Tokre Koli, Naikada, Paradhi, Vitolia Bhil, Gavit, Kokana, Tokre, Mahadeo and Dhor Koli, Dhanaka. Bhil, Dhor Koli, Dhanaka, Tokre Koli. Bhil, Mahadeo Koli, Thakar, Dhor Koli, Tokre Koli, Paradhi. Mahadeo koli, Thakar, Kathodi, Katkari, Dhor and Tokre Koli. Mahadeo koli, Katkari, Kathodi. Mahadeo Koli Mahadeo Koli, Paradhi. 11
16 17 18 19 20 21
KOLHAPUR BULDHANA AKOLA WASHIM AMARAWATI YAWATMAL
0.6 5.2 6.1 7.0 13.7 19.7
Mahadeo Koli Andh, Dhanwar, Mahadeo Koli, Paradhi Andh, Dhanwar, Mahadeo Koli, Paradhi Andh, Dhanwar, Mahadeo Koli, Paradhi Dhanwar, Gond, Korku, Paradhi, Nhihal Andh, Paradhi Dhanwar, Gond, Kolam, Pardhan, Halaba,
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
NAGPUR WARDHA BHANDARA GONDIA CHANDRAPUR GADCHIROLI AURANGABAD JALANA BEED
10.9 12.5 12.5 15.4 18.1 38.3 3.5 2.0 1.1
Gond, Halaba. Kharia. Gond, Pardhan. Gond, Halaba. Gond, Halaba. Gond, Halaba, Pardhan, Halabi, Kanwar, Gond, Halaba, Pardhan, Halabi, Kanwar, Bhil, Mahadeo Koli, Malhar Koli. Bhil, Mahadeo Koli, Malhar Koli. Bhil, Mahadeo Koli.
31 32 33 34 35 Source:
PARBHANI 2.3 Andh, Mahadeo Koli. HINGOLI 8.8 Andh, Mahadeo Koli. NANDED 8.8 Andh, Gond, Kolam, Mahadeo Koli, Oranon,Dhangad, OSMANABAD 1.9 Andh, Gond, Kolam, Mahadeo Koli, Oranon, Dhangad. LATUR 2.3 Mahadeo Koli, Oraon, Dhangad. th 1) Annual Tribal Sub Plan2002-2003-X Five Year Tribal Sub Plan 2007. 2) Government of Maharashtra Tribal Development Department. 12
1.5 Tribal Area in Maharashtra: In the first category, Mumbai Suburban District is at lowest with 1.12 percent and Hingoli is at highest with 9.51 percent in tribal population. In the next group of tribal distribution there are 8 districts where 10 to 20 percent tribal population is observed, Where Wardha district starts from 11.49 percent tribal population and Yawatmal district is on top with 18.54 percent tribal population. 20 to 50 percent of tribal distribution is in three districts.These are Gadchiroli, Dhule and Nasik where tribal population is 38.71 percent, 31.56 percent and 25.62 percent respectively. In Maharashtra, Nandurbar is the only district where tribal population is more than 69 percent , therefore this district is only district in the state, which dwelling in high (50 to 80 percent) tribal concentration zone with 69.28 percent tribal population. There is no district in Maharashtra state in dominant (80 to 100 percent) category of tribal distribution. Tribhuvan, Robin (2004) has stated that in Maharashtra the scheduled tribes are spread over 47 tehsils of 14 Districts. The most populated districts are Dhule, Nandurbar and Gadchiroli.15 Map No.1.2: Tribal Area Map of Maharashtra
Source: Tribal Research and Training Institute, Pune.
13
Table No 1.4. Distribution of Tribal Population In Maharashtra State : 2011 Census Percentage Percentage Total Tribal Of Tribal Category District Population Population Population Dominant (80 to 100 ) Nil Nil Nil Nil High (50 to 80) Nandurbar 1648295 1141933 69.28 Gadchiroli 1072942 415306 38.71 Important Dhule 2050862 647315 31.56 (20 to 50) Nasik 6107187 1564369 25.62 Yawatmal 2772348 514057 18.54 Chandrapur 2204307 389441 17.67 Gondiya 1322507 214253 16.20 Jalgaon 4229917 604367 14.29 Significant (10 to 20) Thane 11060148 1542451 13.95 Amarawati 2888445 405128 14.03 Raigarh 2634200 305125 11.58 Wardha 1300774 149507 11.49 Hingoli 1177345 111954 9.51 Nagpur 4653570 437571 9.40 Ahmednagar 4543159 378230 8.33 Nanded 3361292 281695 8.38 Bhandara 1200334 88886 7.41 Washim 1197160 80471 6.72 Akola 1813906 100280 5.53 Buldhana 2586258 124837 4.83 Aurangabad 3701282 143366 3.87 Low (1-10) Pune 9429408 348876 3.70 Latur 2454196 57488 2.34 Parbhani 1836086 40514 2.21 Osmanabad 1657576 36039 2.17 Jalna 1959046 42263 2.16 Solapur 4317756 77592 1.88 Bid 2585049 32722 1.27 Ratnagiri 1615069 20374 1.26 Mumbai(Subur) 9356962 104560 1.12 Satara 3003741 29635 0.99 Sindhudurg 849651 6976 0.82 Negligible Mumbai 3085411 25093 0.81 (Below 1) Kolhapur 3876001 30206 0.78 Sangli 2822143 18333 0.65 Source: 2011 Census Data 14
Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) TSP is created by state for planning and development programmes of areas where quite substantial tribal population inhabits.TSP also covers all tribal development blocks, all tehsils having more than 50 percent tribal concentration, Scheduled areas villages and areas which constitute pockets in above mentioned areas are included in TSP.Tikone P.R. (2000) has pointed out that in Maharashtra 5941 villages with 46425 sq.Km geographical area included in tribal sub plan area.17 Additional Tribal Sub Plan (ATSP) As guided by the Government of India, in 1975-76 the villages where more than 50 Percent of the population was tribal were included into Integrated Tribal Development Projects. There were 16 such Government of India sanction ITDP Along these lines, the villages where the tribal population was just close to 50 Percent were further included into extra I.T.D.P. and these were known as the Additional Tribal Sub Plan. In Maharashtra, three ATSP had covered 647 villages with 3101sq.Km geographical area. The Study area, Akole tehsil included in this ATSP. Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) In the interim, the Government of India recognized the fact that there were some small concentrations of tribal population just outside the I.T.D.Ps. and they were not covered in ATSPs so they ordered the group of villages having a population of about 10,000, if more than 50 Percent were tribals, the villages should be brought under the Modified Area Development Approach (MADA).In Maharashtra state, 1512 number of villages with 7421 sq.Km geographical area have been covered under MADA. At present, there are 43 MADA project in state. Mini MADA Likewise, if two or three villages having a total population of 5,000 with more than 50 Percent were tribals, the same should be constituted into a Mini MADA. In Maharashtra, 387 villages with 2080 sq.Km area are in Mini MADA. 15
1.6 Tribes in Ahmednagar District: The District level distribution of tribal population shows wide variation. Ahmednagar district is habitat of 8.32 percent tribal population of Maharashtra. The largest cluster of tribal population in Ahmednagar district lies in upper Mula and Pravara basin and partially in Godavari river basin and Western part of Sahyadri Mountain. Table No 1.4 Distribution of Scheduled Tribe in Ahmednagar District Percentage Tehsils Category
Total
2001
Total
2011
Population Tribal Tribal
2001
2011
Percent of Tribal 2001
Percent of Tribal 2011
Akole
2,66,638 291950
1,21,566 139730 45.6
47.86
Kopargaon
2,77170
302452
27,457
34377
09.9
11.36
Sangamner 4,14,439 487939
41,297
51652
09.4
10.58
Rahuri
2,94,924 322823
27,913
34036
09.5
10.54
Shrirampur 2,56,458 287500
14,016
19556
05.5
06.80
Rahata
2,88,279 320485
15,425
20130
05.4
06.28
Parner
2,46,552 274167
12,074
17054
04.9
06.22
Low
Newasa
3,26,698 357829
15,720
18894
04.5
05.28
(1 to 10)
Shrigonda
2,77,356 315975
701
13870
02.7
04.38
Nagar
6,06,690 684044
10,228
14396
01.7
02.10
Shevgaon
2,03,676 245714
3,277
4681
01.6
01.90
Pathardi
2,14,872 258109
2,792
4118
01.3
01.59
Karjat
2,05,674 235792
2,310
3464
01.1
01.46
Jamkhed
1,34,216 158380
1,879
2272
01.4
01.43
Important (20 to 50 ) Significant (10 to 20)
Ahmednagar District
4040642 4543159 303255
378230 07.50
08.32
Source: Ahmednagar District Population Data 2001 and 2011Census. 16
The rim of Sahyadri continuously encourages aboriginals to settle and survive. Dense forest, Hill valley, rugged topography, steep slopes support tribal communities. Most of the tribal are concentrated in western part of Akole Tehsil. Out of total tribal population of district, more than 36 percent tribals inhabit in Akole tehsil. In Akole tehsil itself, out of total population 47.86 percent population consists of tribals. Therefore Government has declared Akole tehsil as Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) area. It is very interesting to note that more than 75 percent tribal population of district is concentrated in only 5 Tehsils like Akole (36.94 percent) Sangamner (13.65 percent), Kopargaon (9.08 percent), Rahuri (8.99 percent) and Rahata (5.34 percent) Tehsils with high tribal population concentration are characterized by hilly, roughed terrain, forested and river basin. Distribution pattern of tribal population in Ahmednagar district is very uneven. Ten Tehsils mainly in South and East direction except Parner and Rahata falls in low percentage category (1 to 10 percent) of tribal distribution. In this first group Jamkhed with 1.43 percent tribal population shows lowest in district, On the other hand, some parts of Shrirampur tehsil stands on top with 6.80 percent tribes. Tehsils with less tribal population are characterized by relatively low attitude and thin vegetative cover area towards East and South of district. In next group Kopargaon, Sangamner and Rahuri tehsil exhibit 11.36 percent, 10.58 percent and 10.54 percent respectively. Therefore, it comes into significant (10 to 20 percent) category of tribal distribution. These Tehsils are characterized by fluvial topography of Mula & Pravara basin and partially Godavari River basin. Rahuri and Sangamner are covered by Baleshwar range and Mula and Pravara basin. Such hill valley landscape is supreme location for tribes. Godavari River flows through Kopargaon Tehsil and there arehardly any shrubs and vegetative cover which support to tribals. This tehsil is neighbored by Nasik district from West and North sides which is well-known for its tribal population. This vicinity of tribal belt of Nasik is also important reason for high tribal concentration in Kopargaon tehsil. In Ahmednagar district only Akole tehsil comes in important (20 to 50 percent) percentage category of tribal population. Out of total tribal population of 17
district more than 37 percent tribal population resides only in Akole Tehsil. The percentage of tribal population to tribal population is comparatively much higher 47.8 percent in Akole tehsil. That is why Akole tehsil has been selected for present study. 1.7 Child Mortality, Malnutrition and Tribals: According to WHO (1946) health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.18 Health status is one important criteria of Human development. Good status of Health is unavoidable right of every citizen. Millennium Development Goals have been set during Millennium Summit held at Newyork in Sept.2000. There are 8 goals like eradication of poverty and improve welfare of people. Out of these goals, the first is to eradicate poverty and Hunger & the fourth is to reduce child mortality. Pandey, Anita (2010) has stated that even though there are clear directives from International level health condition of 0 to 6 age children is comparatively worst. In India, in spite of several government services and schemes,
millions
of
children
suffer
from both
acute
and
chronic
malnutrition.19According to Global Hunger Index (2008), India scored 23.7 points and was placed 66th among 88 countries. Pande, Kundan (2013) has stated that malnutrition report in 2012 suggest that 59 percent of country’s children could have stunted growth and 42 percent could be underweight.20 The World Bank Report (2009) has reported that India ranked (47 percent children Malnourished) as second only to Bangladesh (48 percent) with highest number of underweight children in the world, which is nearly double than that of sub-Saharan Africa (24 percent), with dire consequences of mobility, mortality, productivity & economic growth.21 This kind of dreadful malnutrition was recognized by former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of the country and he called malnutrition as “national shame”. Times of India (2012) reported that the PM further said that the level of malnutrition in India was “unacceptably high”. He also said that government could not rely solely on Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS).22 18
According to Hunger and Malnutrition Report (HUNGaMA 2012) 50 percent children under 5 in the country are underweight and 42 percent children in the same age group are suffering from malnutrition. This report also highlighted that one of three malnourished children in the world is the Indian. 23 Rao, S., Joshi, S.B.and Kelkar, R.S. (2000) has stated that Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in Melghat region is 82.98 which is very high, compared to IMR of rural Maharashtra of 1999 which is 58 as well as IMR of rural India which is 75.24 Singh, Rajesh (2008) has stated that wrong weaning practices, superstitions, illiteracy, low age at marriage, low weight at birth and malnutrition are major contributing factors responcible for infant and child mortality. To stop these evil deaths, government is implementing several schemes like Mid Day Meal, Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS), Rajmata Jijau Mother-Child Health and Nutrition Mission.25 Therefore the present study has been undertaken to find out the rate of child mortality and malnutrition in scheduled tribes of Akole Tehsil. These people are more superstitious, illiterate, traditional and poor all these become obstacles in their development. Uncertain mode of employment, economic instability leads to poverty, which makes them victims of morbidity and malnutrition. 1.8 Statement of Problem: The present study aims to find out malnutrition and child mortality in tribal area of Akole tehsil. All this phenomena is quite complex in nature, therefore in order to understand tribal health and medical geography, following questions have been framed to formulabecome statement of problem for study area. Since independence, government has undertaken a large number of schemes for betterment of tribal their protection them from exploitation. These schemes used up thousand millions of rupees, but in fact result of this investment returns are very scanty. Tribals still face problems of malnutrition, hunger, poverty, illiteracy, poor health facility and remain deprived of their rights. Even though today, government pays special attention to these tribals, some 19
encountering problems like low literacy level, economic backwardness and several health issues arise. The Researcher would like to study economic condition How status of livelihood affects health status of tribes? What is the proportion of child mortality, under nutrition, malnutrition in this society? How do physical factors become barriers in economic development of these tribes? Why are these tribe deprived from social, economic development? Which are their major problems? How can those problems be solved? To find out the answers to questions of this neglected and deprived tribe, I had taken “Study of Malnutrition and Child Mortality of Tribal Area: a Case Study of Akole Tehsil in Ahmednagar District, Maharashtra”. 1.9 Selection of Study Area: Akole tehsil have been selected for this study which is the western most tehsil of Ahmednagar district. This tehsil has occupied 1505.08sq.Km area, out of 17053sq. Km. area of Ahmednagar district, which constitute 8.82 percent area of the district. Areawise, this tehsil ranks third in the district followed by Parner and Shrigonda respectively. It is North south extent from South of Kalewadi to North of Pachpatta is 58 Km.while East to west width of tehsil from forested area which lies at Northwest of Ghatghar to Dongargaon at East is 53Kms.This tehsil lies between the latitudes 19015’12” North to 190 45’6” North and 730 37’00” East to 740 07’ 21” East longitude. The western side of tehsil is demarcated by Sahyadri ranges. The western border of Akole tehsil is shared by Shahapur tehsil (Thane District) and Igatpuri tehsil (Nasik District). Sangamner tehsil (Ahmednagar District) is towards East, Northern border of tehsil is neighbored by Sinnar tehsil (Nasik District), Junnar tehsil (Pune District) is neighbored from South. There are 191 villages in Akole tehsil. 1.10 Hypothesis: While studying the selected topic for research the following hypothesis is going to be tested. 20
1) Whether malnutrition and child mortality is function of socio-economic conditions and dietary habits of tribes in Akole tehsil? 1.11 Objectives: The Present study aims to assess health status of tribal children and child mortality in tribal community. Therefore following objectives have been considered for this study. 1) To study geographical distribution of tribes in Akole tehsil. 2) To Study malnutrition and child mortality in tribes. 3) To identify the problems related to socio- economic condition of tribes. 4) To undertake health study of different tribal groups in the study region. 1.12 Methodology and Techniques: For the concerned study, various aspects of physical, demographic and Socio-economic, health and hygiene have been studied. The fact regarding database, methodology and techniques have been presented in this study. A brief sketch of methodology adopted for this study is given bellow. 1.12.1 Data Base: The Present study tries to find out proportion of malnutrition and child mortality in tribal area of Akole tehsil .For this study primary and secondary data is used through following sources. 1.12.2 Primary Data Source: For this work data have been taken from various sources in order to get precise information related to statement of problem. The information related to work has been collected by the author from tribal community. The tribal villages where tribal population is more than 50 percent have been taken into consideration. Forty five tribal villages out of total 114 tribal villages were chosen for sample collection. Various locations in Akole tehsil like, villages from hills, plains, riverside, roadside, forest etc. are selected for the study. 21
Village with household with children from 0 to 6 age were preferred for study of malnutrition.375 children were assessed for this study.personal meetings and interview method was also adopted for getting socio-economic information from the head of the family. 1.12.3. Secondary Data Source: The Secondary data has been collected from various sources such as, several books, gazetteer of Ahmednagar district, development reports, periodicals, research paper are used to obtain data.Report of Non Government Organizations, information of tribal group have been taken from census of India 2001 and Provisional Census Data of 2011. From Tribal Research and Training Institute, Pune. Required data have been collected from Regional Tribal Office, Rajur. 1.12.4 Methodology: With the help of 2011 census population data, tribal populations in villages were grouped according to the percentage. In order to get information regarding health status of tribal children physiographic data was collected. Simple but specially designed questionnaires were used for this purpose. Anthropometric information of children were collected between the age group of 0 to 6.Information has been collected with the help of schedule covering height, weight, Mid Upeer Arm Circumference (UMAC), Head Circumference (HC), Infant and child mortality and diet intake along with family history and present status of health etc.The study measures nutritional status of children from 0-6 according to anthropometric indices, viz, Height for age, Weight for age, BMI for age, MUAC and Head circumference based on WHO growth standard which is considered for each index a ‘Z-Score’ below minus two standard deviations (-2SD) from median of the reference population. Dibley (1987) have given details about each index providing different type of information about body growth and body composition of children who are classified as chronically malnourished (Stunted) acutely malnourished (Wasted) and Underweight (Both acute and Chronic Malnutrition) A further lower Z-score below minus three standard deviation (-3SD) is classified as severely malnourished.26 22
1.12.5 Techniques: 1. Sampling Technique: This study is based on primary survey. For collecting data, random sampling survey method has been adopted. According to tribal population percentage, more than 45 villages in tribal area have been selected. 2. Computer and Statistical Technique: Collected data have been stored and processed in Microsoft excel. There are some observations of several parameters related to tribal social, economic, demographic, behavioral, and environmental and health aspects.Simple but meaningful statistical techniques have been used in this study. The mean standard deviation, percentage have been used for finding comparative approach. 4. Cartographic and GIS Technique: GIS technique has been adopted for presentation of map. Several physical maps slope, drainage, climate, soil, vegetation have been prepared with the help of Arc GIS 9.3 Software. 1.13. Limitation of Study: The present study has certain limitations which have been encounterd by the researcher. They are as follows: 1. This study is an exploratory study, All findings are based on primary data collected from tribal area. 2. This study is confined to samples from tribal households with children in 0 to 6 age group in tribal area of Akole tehsil. 3. The assessed malnutrition status among children, Standard Growth charts are used, which are prepared by World Health Organization. 1.14 Review of Literature: The Tribals have been residing in isolated patches of forest, mountains and vallies since long back. As they live in inaccessible area they fully depend on natural resources for their bread and butter. The tribes depend on the forests their and products like roots, fruits, birds, animals.Being educationally and economically weak and with life of comparative exclusiveness, the scheduled tribe found adjustment more difficult in alien location and settle on new 23
avocations on different sites of settlement. They lagged behind in this process of growth and struggling for fulfilling their basic needs. Singh, Romesh (2006) has given keen observation that during pre-British period tribal communities of India remain fully or partially isolated from the rest of the country and consequently they remain backward and suffer from poverty, malnutrition, diseases, exploitation and ignorance of verifying degree.27 Riji, Hari (2006) has stated that as forest areas have been declining constantly, Due to technological encroachment in the form of wind mills, hydropower projects, extention of highways etc makes tribals to shift to new environment. This causes health and financial problems. The successive droughts during the past few years and prevailing economic uncertainty have also played negative role in tribal lives. So they have become the ultimate victim of high morbidity and extreme under nutrition.28 1. Tribal Geography: Tribal geography is one of the important branchs of human geography. Tribal population is traditionally considered as marginal to main stream of Indian society and civilization, while its contribution to formation of the synthetic culture of the country and its role in the creation of different characters of areas are significant. As described by Mukharjee, A.B. (1979) the tribes have received scant attention from both cultural and population geographers, attitude of negligence and indifference continue to persist, despite several facilities created for studying tribes.29 Muzumdar (1973) has described with help of dot map and physiographic map which attempt to explain the distribution in term of wellknown classic dichotomy of hill and plain habitat complex,the distribution of tribal population in eastern Gujrat.30 Rao (1989),
31
Raghaiyah (1956)
32
have
define tribal Geography which consists of systematic analysis of tribals, both spatially and temporally. Tribal geography emphasizes geographical location of tribals, their interaction with nature and their economic environment. Prasad, Maheshwari (1977) has defined tribal geography as the branch of geography, which studies tribal society, comprising both tribes and their development, and 24
its environment, and its interactions with different forms of nontribal societies.33 According to Ugle, Vilas (2006) Tribal geography deals with the cultural and social characteristic of these people.34 Behera (2000) has stressed that the need to understand the process of social movement of different socio-cultural groups of the society with geographical perspective.Geographical study of Birhor is important in two sense, firstly to identify their habitation in the region and secondly their social organization in spatial perspective. Since the work is positivist in nature it seeks the hypothese with the view to empirically develop the theoretical structure about their lifestyle.35 Kumar, Sudhir (2004) has focused on the aspect of human geography is not much developed in the country and there is need to be developed for such work36. Ahmed, Aijazuddin (2008) has observed that Indian tribes display a very high degree of ethnic diversity both in their racial composition and dialectal and linguistic affinity.37 Naik, T.B. (1964) has pointed out that the primary occupation of the Gonds was hunting, fishing and food gathering in former times, their main occupation is now cultivation, but in the extend they large people work as farm worker and forest laboureres.38 2. Tribal Health: According to World Health Organization health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. In other words health means not only absence of diseases but life with human dignity is expected. Improvement of health is the central aspect of Millennium development goal. Anonymous., (1999) has stated that tribes in India were neglected a lot, vastly discriminated in terms of income distribution and social status.39 Tribes are a group of a people, who are economically backward, exploited, socially handicapped and have greater sense of homogeneity. According to NFHS-2 (IIPS1988/1998) the data indicates that, although Breastfeeding is universal and mean duration of location is more than two years, only 55.2 Percent infants up to three months of age receive exclusive breastfeeding and only 33.5 percent of infants from six to nine month receive breastfeeding and semi solid food. He also opine that low dietary intake of iron 25
and chronic blood loss caused by infections such as malaria and hook worm infection of Anemia, remain the main causes of maternal mortality in India. It accounts for more than 20 percent maternal deaths. Naresh Kumar,Vaidya (2004) in his study Who Takes Care for Tribal Development stated that first attempt of tribal development was started with British (Some may say that King Ashoka initiated this by creating the post of Anta-Mahamatya-Minister who looks after the downtrodden.40Bhalerao, Kate and Bagade (1995) have pointed out that the Health care and delivery system should be designed for each specific need and problem by bringing their personal involvement and also taking into consideration the demographic pattern ,terrain and climate.41 Tribhuvan, Robin (2004) has rightly observed that these groups usually live in inaccessible areas detached from mainstream, often lacking communication facilities, and educational institutions. Traditionally they remain involved in the activities like magic and witchcraft, Primitive technological approaches, poor sanitation, under or non utilization of available resources, poverty, illiteracy, poor hygienic and primitive health practices are combined to have detrimental effect on health.42 3. Poverty and Health: The Economic status is therefore considered as prime factor of determining the purchasing power, thereby household food security and nutritional status of community. Tribal income is determined by natural circumstances, seasonal transform, and scope of governmental actions in the forest area, and with a great extent, nearness of plain villages and weekly markets. Sasicoumar (2007) has stated that tobacco is known effective as medicine for many conditions. Since primary reason for use of tobacco
is
frequently illness and poor health, tobacco can suppress the symptoms without currying them the underlying diseases may be masked and continue to progress.43 According to Rajeshwari (2012), there are essentially two different things through which health conditions can be improved, First economic growth and employment in gainful activities, which means prosperity can bring the means of health care and nutrition within the reach of all section of society, secondly 26
specific support of food consumption, community health ,medical care ,basic education and awareness can transform general health conditions.44 Shinde, Dhanshri (2012) has opined that nearly half of the ever married tribal women between 15 to 49 years suffers from anemia, which is marginally higher in rural areas, at the 51.2 percent than urban areas where it is 44.8 percent. The proportion of women in clutches of mild, Moderate and severe anemia is 31.4 percent,14.1 percent and 2.9 percent respectively.45 Dash, C.R. (1999) pointed out for eradication of tribal poverty is to identify the conditions necessary for successful application after taking into
account of factors affecting due to
topography and climate, living style and culture, level of skill education and social acceptability for them.46 Pant, B.R.(2010) has rightly pointed out that the tribal particularly Tharus are the lowest income group people living in absolute poverty and are also surviving in shallow of severe undernutrional conditions inviting several disease including deficiency related diseases an unhealthy persons cannot perform the physical as well as mental responsibilities properly.47 Many scholars has reported the poverty is major determinant of health and malnutrition level among tribals in this concern Swaminathan (1996) has reported poverty is main cause of hunger and chronic food insecurity in turn are caused by unequal asset distribution.48 4. Tribal Socio-Economic Environment: Socio-economic condition of individual is main controller and decision making factor of children health. Socio-economic level of society play dominant role in determine the health and nutrition status of people. Pant, B.R.(2010) has pointed out that different tribal groups represent different level of socioeconomic development.49 Maheshwari (1987) have discussed details of the dynamic of economic change among tribals in a specific environment.50 Saritkumar (2004) has rightly observed that people of India is characterized by various social and historical forces, the tribals have to face feudal -colonial domination, caste prejudice, illiteracy, poverty and isolation.51 According to Mukhopadhyay (2002) most of the settlements, due to their hilltop locations, have poor means of transport and communication facilities, which 27
have
discouraged socio-economic development of tribals.52 Tiwari, P.D.& Sharma, A.N. ( 2002) has observed that natural environment plays dominant role in the livelihood of tribals of eastern plateau. In order to preserve their distinctive culture, aesthetic and way of living it is necessary to keep natural environment intact.53 Ramchandran, P.(2006) has observed that illiterate woman was less varied diet than literate woman. The Poverty has strong negative effect on dietary diversity. Low socio-economic group are less likely than other their diets are deficient in fruits, milk or curd etc.54 Meshram, A. R.,and Chaterji, Meera (1999) has discussed that in India, household food insecurity system from inadequate employment and income; seasonal migration, especially among tribals population relatively high food prices; misdistribution of food ;poor social organization and large family size.55 According to UNESCO Report (1970) while the percentage of illiteracy among total population is principal index of the level of education in the country, the relationship between figures for each gender becomes an index of equality of men and women.56 It is generally observed that the illiterate mothers have very little idea about how much food a child needs for adequate growth and nutrition. In this contest Das, N.C. Sahu, S.K. (1999) has observed meaningful relation between education and socio economic status of family that the Socio-economic status of community depends upon the education status of people. Educational standard is also an Indicator of economic development.57 He also remarked on the tribal health that considerable portion of tribal population is killed by different kind of diseases. Mortality also determines the size of population and its composition by sex & age According to UNO “Mortality is the percentage of death in the population”. In very relevant piece of writing Rao (2003) has marked that climate and topographical situation has been responsible for isolating and preserving tribal culture.58 Muzumdar (1973) has studied occupational structure of tribal population and their distribution pattern, social organization, economies and changes of modes of living. He also emphasized potentialities of the use of the use of distributional studies in developing and understanding of the socio-economic parameter of tribal group.59 28
Some specific aspects of economy of tribal groups and the tribal areas have also received scholarly attention of geographers in their studies of land man ratio in tribal area in which they discussed problems from the human ecological perspective. Further makes forceful plea for conducting studies of man-land ratio in different part of tribal areas since India offers such a field of study as no other country does. Gautam M.K. (1973) has discussed traditions and legends related to Santhal migration. Ecological factors are involved in the wondering habits of the group, their social organization, political and economic structure have been discussed in detail.60 Bagchi D.(1970) describes the role of government policies and programmes in effecting the transformation of tribal societies and their economies and their habitats towards modernization.61 Jaiswal, Khan and Shankar (1969) have discovered the main reason for the low socio-economic development of tribal areas in negative and occasionally neutral attitude of tribal leaders and tribal followers towards scheme of agricultural development. 62 Mitra, S. (1973) has discussed mode of living, particularly in economy and the cultural landscape of Santhal tribe of Bihar. She further states the study effect of dam irrigation on settlement rehabilitation and shift in agricultural activities.63 Bose, A.B.(1970) has described detailed spatial pattern of literacy and level of education among scheduled tribes of India, he described inter tribe literacy, female literacy, enrolment ratio and drop out rate with spatial patterns.64 It is observed in literature survey that socio cultural aspects of tribals were less noticed by geographer. Some attempts in this arena were made by Patil, P.G.(1999) he has pointed out tribals hold tradition and beliefs are very strongly but not scientific .It is necessary to educate the tribals about scientific and realistic fact so as to uproot incorrect and fatal traditions and beliefs.65 Patidar, Hemant and Singh, M.B.(2012) has pointed out that tribals in India due to their differential ethno-demographic background and poor economic conditions have differential familial and reproductive behavior from the advantaged and educated non tribal masses.66 Nag, M.(1989) has observed women from differential socioeconomic and cultural background have differential notions of education and consequently child bearing.67 Ratan, V. (1982) has advocated four principals of 29
healthy housing conditions, they are physiological needs, psychological needs, need of protection against diseases and protection against accidents.68Some studies were become crucial for determining further study in tribal fields. 5. Tribal Occupations: It is easy to understand why geographers have been attracted so greatly towards analysis of economic activities on the different tribes in different areas. On one hand, economies provide us with insights for understanding the social organization and on the other hand they illuminate the culture-ecological implications. Tribal population is always tries to cope up with natural environment therefore major occupations of these tribals are closely related to forests. A some studies in this field were concerned about the landforms, the natural vegetation ,the minerals, the agricultural products and forest resources are all related with rites and rituals and hence with the religion.Ugale,Vilas (2006) has rightly observed various items of minor forest product MFP posses the potential of an economic revolution among tribals It is estimated that MFP collection and processing and marketing can generate a gainful employment of ten million standards about persons per year.69 Maheshwari (1987) has stated that the degrading environment of tribal areas have been posing problem not only of resources availability in the form of soil, forests, fuel, grass, fodder etc. and the problem facing highlands areas in exclusively linked to activities of the hill tribes.70 Life of many tribal groups were depend upon natural resources but little alteration in this cause great impact on their livelihood. Khupse, Bajaj and Yadav (1980) have observed that important problems are low crop yields, poor livestock, loans, marketing, assistance from marketing agencies and other problem from social nature.71 Nayaryanan (2005) has stated that small hilly fragmented infertile land holdings devoid of irrigation facilities are the basic assets and the forests which were the main source of their food ,fodder and fuel are
rapidly
depleting.72Ahmed,
Aijazuddin
(2008)
has
observed
that
environmental diversity within this vast region has led to varied ecological responses with the result that the
Gonds are found engaged in economies
ranging from food gathering to sedentary agriculture.73 Reddy, Sudhakar (1999) 30
has observed that most of tribal live in forest areas and more than 90 percent of them are below B.P.L, 85 percent tribals are landless and working as labourers and cultivating small patch of land in forest area.74 Bose, N.K.(1971) has described tribes in the terms of material traits and their economics, which express not only cultural characteristics but also assessed the level of socio economic development of the tribes and configuration of their economics.75 Patnaik, J.K.(1970) has discussed very detail about shifting cultivation practiced by Lamba Lanjia Saoras tribe. He further studies types of shifting cultivation, method and procedures of cultivation. He explains slash and burn cultivation is not only mean of livelihood ,but also way of living, is deeply rooted in empirical and rational knowledge on one hand and traditional and ethical system expressed through ceremonialism which helps them to keep in touch with supernatural reality on the other.76 The large number of usage to which the forest vegetation species are put by the tribes of Ranchi pleatues have been enumerated and discussed by Raza, Mehdi (1970) has provides a detailed inventory of the species which have been established by ethnological significance and thus opens lines of futures research on the utilization of most important resource of tribal area.77 Sharma, R.P. (1971) has stated regional agricultural pattern among tribal groups in Madhya Pradesh, he further explains agronomic practices, extent of shifting agriculture, problems of agriculture, soil erosion and transfer of property to non tribals.78 6. Dietary Pattern of Tribals: Diet of tribal is most vital and crucial factor which controls nutritional status among them. Joshi, Sarat (1999) has stated that in spite of legal prohibition, drinking is still continued. It has become a strong custom also. Wine & women are still prevailing attribute to a large extent.79 Ghosh, Shanti (2004) has rightly observed that in overall India only one third children were offered semi solid food during first six to nine months, In BIMARU states that it varies between 15 to 30 percent,while in Punjab (38 percent) and Haryana (41 percent) only.80 Food habits of people are outcome of the general beliefs which are deeply rooted in the mind of people of any community about food.Those beliefs have 31
gradual evolution over generation and are geographical and socio-cultural in origin. Pant, B.R. (2010) Says that generally green vegetables are also important source of vitamins, deficiency of which causes various nutrition deficiency diseases. It is worth to mention that in rainy season tharus consume green & leafy vegetables twice even thrice in a day.81It is generally observed that the diet of most of tribals are restricted by nature itself, limited resources, seasonal availability of leafy vegetables, water scarcity becomes more vulnerable. Scrimshaw (1995) has opined that dietary habits based on ignorance or food prejudices and nutritional relative beliefs that have valid basis in society often leads to malnutrition.82 Harlock (1985) has opined that malnutrition may be caused by poverty but it more often stems from faulty eating habits due to parental ignorance about good nutritious food and balance diet83 Indira V. (1993) has pointed out that socio economical factors, income from land and the expenditure. The vaeious food items can be used as a good indicator of child’s nutrition.84 Breast feeding and weaning practices also shade impact on nutritional status of children. Breast milk is natural and ideal food for normal growth and healthy development of infants and it should be fed to infants from moment of birth. Rao (2005) has reported that 60 percent Toda mothers startes breast feed soon after delivery, while Kotas, Irulas and Kurumbas discarded colostrum and startes breast feeding after the third day. 85The several tribes in Maharashtra have accepted long time custom of breast feeding practice. Dualeh and Henry (1989) have sharply pointed out that malnourished babies were found decreasing when breast feeding keeps on longer time.86 Jadhav, Bhakare and Gophane (2012) have observed that from food stuff consumption and nutrient intake of Minache village have been associated with income group of people, Cereal deficiency found in high income group and the deficiency of pulses, leafy vegetables, other vegetables ,meat and fish are found in entire income group except high income group.87 In light of rapid population the growth which has vital implication for the use of land. In this age of fastfood it is immense important to verify diet of children and mother for well growth. Das, K.N. (1971) has undertaken detailed survey of food habits, nutritional needs and level of consumption of people to 32
give the attention towards planning a better use of land in Kosi region of Bihar. The analysis of food balance sheets revealed the serious gap between actual food requirement and productivity of the land.88 7. Tribal Malnutrition: Dash and Naidu (2007) asserted that tribal people irrespective of their places, culture, language and different ecologically setting were nutritionally very poor, especially in their calcium, carotene and iron intake.89 Vidyarthi L.P.(1994) has rightly observed that diet of a expectant mother is not special. He is given the usual meal and no special dish is prescribed in general throughout tribals in India with few exceptions.90 Naik, Indira (2001) has given information about malnutrition which is prevalent among poor and ignorant tribal people living under adverse socio-economic environment.91 It also retards normal growth, development and affects on health. Ghosh, Shanti (2004) has rightly stated that WHO recommends 6 months breastfeeding but most of mothers do it for 3-4 months. BPNI (Breast feeding promotion network of India) conducted study in 49 District in 2003, it revealed that only 39.7 percent infants were exclusively breastfed during first 6 month .The role of artificial feeding was quite high.92 According to NFHS-2(1998-99) almost half of the children (47 percent) under four are malnourished (-2SD) and (18 percent) are severe malnourished (3SD). she also pointed out that 10th five year plan was not much ambitions to reduce malnutrition.93 It postulate a reduction of malnutrition from 47 percent to 40 percent. Total Budget- for nutrition in 10th plan is 1,280 crore. Government of India has introduced Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Integrated
Tribal
Development
Programme
(ITDP),
Integrated
Child
Development Service (ICDS) that aims to fulfill needs of poorer segment of rural and tribal population. The Government has also started Nutritious Noon Meal Programme (NMP) to combat with malnutrition. Mehanti (1992) reported that non implementation of new programme, lack of penetration of the agencies into the rural and tribal areas, lack of extension services, rampant corruption by the staff, lack of community participation, influence of politicians and fragmentation 33
within the population in the name of caste and region are some factors which corroded the impact of welfare programme in the tribal areas.94The effect of iron deficiency anemia on morbidity and mortality of women and children was highlighted by Nutriview Reports (1999). According to them Fertile women, infants and preschool children in developing countries are the group of most vulnerable to iron deficiency which retards mental and psychomotor development,
causes
tiredness
and
reduce
work
capacity,
diminishes
effectiveness of immune system and may increase morbidity and mortality among women and children.95 Moatula, Hemkhothang Lhungdim (2014) has pointed out that malnurioushment in children is caused by many factors directly associated with the child, mother and household environment.96 According to UNICEF Report (2000) in the developing world 39 percent of children under age 5 are chronically malnourished and about 54 percent of deaths among children of same age group are associated with malnutrition.97 Singh, Luwang (1980) has stated Surveys conducted in several part of India reported persistence of malnutrition among tribal children.98 Devi, Rohini and Arya, A.B.(1983) have observed that malnutrition occures not only due to the scarcity of food but also due to influence of non nutritional factors such as income, literacy level, occupation etc.99 8. Tribal Mortality: Pacholi, Sarojini (1993) had rightly observed that the study of environmental factors become more essential in distribution of the disease which has been understood in its proper perspective .Physical and cultural elements, like the surface configuration, water bodies climate, soils, vegetation, social customs and economics matrix interact in variety of ways and determine the spatial distribution of malaria in a given area.100 Pant, B.R. (2010) have rightly pointed out in the study shows that maximum 81 percent deaths occurred before the age of five, infant mortality among Tharus is still more due to early marriage of girls in one hand and poor nutrition intake on the other hand.101 It has been pointed out that tribals take modern medicines only when the illness is very 34
serious, or one which cannot be explained in terms of tribal logic. This attitude leads to mortality.UNICEF (1996) figures nearly 750 children in India are affected by Poliomyelitis and every two minutes in India there is a child death directly related to measles, about 250,000 infants die each year of neonatal tetanus. The Measles alone is claimed over 770,000 lives in 2001 since child were not immunized.102 Rao (2000) has noticed that gastrointestinal illness and fever contributed 50 percent of total morbidity days throughout the preschool age. Kazimi and Kazimi (1979) has observed that prevalence of diarrhea ,malnutrition and deaths among Nigerian Igbo tribe could be attributed to their early introduction of supplementary food under insanitary conditions and ignorance of mothers about weaning food.103 Lambrechts and Orinda (1999) have suggested that child mortality and morbidity in developing countries can be reduced by improving the family and community practices, by improving the skill of health workers and improving the health system.104 Rajadhyaksha, Madhavi (2011) had focused on infant mortality and stated regrettably, Melghat is infamous for its poor Infant Mortality Rate and child mortality rate where the 6,951 live births that took place in 2010-11, 335 infants died within a year, says recently released government figures. During the same period, the belt, which is home to around 37,000 children below the age of six years, witnessed a shocking 509 child deaths and 20 maternal deaths. Simply put, that is over one child below six years dies every day and nearly two women dies in childbirth every month. 105
The Hindu (2012) has focused that high Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in several mandals particularly in the tribal sub-plan areas in the Khammam district of Andhra Pradesh has exposed the glaring deficiencies in the maternal and child health care service delivery system. According to the official figures, the IMR stood at 59.14 per 1000 live births in the tribal areas under VRPuram ICDS project limits last year. Kunavaram, another tribal sub-plan mandal, has recorded the second highest IMR of 22.73.106 Chauhan, Prabha (2011) has observed high mortality among mothers which is reflected not only inadequacy of health care services for tribal 35
population of Bastar, but also low educational status and low socioeconomic status consequential in low standard of living, lack of awareness for availability of health care facilities, unhygienic and primitive practices for parturition resulting ultimately in increaseing in maternal mortality among tribal women of Bastar.107 Nayak, Kunjbihari (1999) has observed the traditional practice of infanticide was not unfamiliar in history of India, though today inhuman practice is constitutionally banned and publically condemned by our modern society Even during pre British period such customary practice used to appear under the shadow of some festivals in the interior region of India.108 Beenstock M. and Sturdy P.(1990)
109
,Basu A. M. (1992)110, Murthi M. (1995)111, Bhargava A.
(1998)112, Pandey (1998)113 have observed relationship between educational attainment and infant and child mortality and stated that education also reduces infant and child mortality. Stamp, L. Dudley (1964) has pointed out in any treatment of world diseases, Malaria should take pride of place, because it is almost worldwide, It has been greatest killer of all and when it does not kill, it reduces mankind almost incompetence.114 1.15. Resume: In this chapter Introductory part about study has been provided .This chapter consist of statement of problem, objectives, hypothesis, methodology, database and literature available regarding study. The tribal population in state and district were offered through tables. In this topic the perspective of tribal malnutrition and infant and child mortality were presented. Literature review was given to understand profile of study in this regards. The main aim of the study is to find out malnutrition and child mortality among tribal children.
36
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