TEX3701/201/1/2018
Tutorial letter 201/1/2018 Persuasive texts
TEX3701 Semester 1 Department of Afrikaans & Theory of Literature Feedback on Assignments 01 and 02 Examination guidelines
STAAFKODE
Open Rubric
Dear Students This tutorial letter gives you feedback on Assignment 01 and Assignment 02, as well as important exam guidelines. Assignment 01 was aimed at assessing your knowledge of learning units 2 and 3 of the study material for TEX3701 by way of twenty multiple choice questions. You had to answer these questions by way of specific choices between the various options provided in each question. In Assignment 02 you had to apply the theoretical knowledge provided in learning units 4 to 9 of the study material in analysing advertisements and health campaign texts. Assignment 01 was marked by the computer, which also generated some very usable statistics to indicate precisely with which of these questions students experienced problems. Overall, though, most of you did very well. We discuss the questions in some detail below.
1.
Assignment 01
The correct answers to the multiple questions were as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
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[2] [2] [3] [2] [3] [3] [1] [2] [2] [3]
11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
[2] [2] [2] [1] [2] [2] [2] [1] [2] [2]
Complete the following statement by choosing the correct option: The main goal of persuasive texts is to influence reader’s ……………….. and ultimately their ………………… . [1] [2] [3]
behaviour; attitude attitude; behaviour attitude; value
The goal of persuasive texts is first to influence the reader’s attitude towards an object and ultimately their behaviour (Sg, p. 20). Not all attitude change results in behaviour change (see the discussion in the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”). In order to change a reader’s existing attitude the document designer should target those beliefs that inform the current attitude. Values, on the other hand, are universal, and therefore persuasive texts rarely try to instill new values in the reader. Document designers will rather use the value system of the reader to identify the relevant arguments for the persuasive message in order to support a change of attitude (cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, pp. 1, 7). 2
Which one of the following is a key element of persuasion? [1] [2] [3]
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use of violence allowing freedom of choice use of threat
TEX3701/201/1 We identified three key elements in persuasion, namely (i) it is an intentional effort on the part of the sender, (ii) it is aimed at influencing the reader’s attitude, and (iii) it allows for some measure of freedom on the part of the reader. Any situation where the reader is forced or threatened to do something (i.e. where the reader does not have the freedom to choose) does not count as persuasion (Sg., p. 19). 3
Which one of the following statements is correct? [1] [2] [3]
A large amount of primary beliefs determine our attitude towards an object. Attitudes are only based on cognitive information. Values are the most enduring cognition.
Values are the most enduring/lasting cognitions. Values are universal, they do not differ between cultures. What differ between cultures is the hierarchy allocated to these values (cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, p. 7). Option [1] is incorrect because our attitude is determined by a limited number of beliefs. According to some researchers only three to five primary beliefs contribute to form an attitude. Option [2] is also incorrect, because our attitude is influenced by three classes of information: cognitive information, affective information and information about past behaviours (see document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, p. 1). 4
Complete the following statement by using the correct option: …………… are evaluations based on beliefs. [1] [2] [3]
Values Attitudes Behavioural intentions
Our belief about an object or issue (e.g. that recycling is necessary or a waste of time) informs our attitude towards the object or issue. Our attitude forms the basis for behaviour, i.e. our intention to behave in a certain manner is influenced by our attitude towards an object. Attitude is an evaluation of an object (such as drinking), i.e. attitudes are evaluations based on beliefs. Our attitude towards an object can influence our behaviour, but attitudes are not the only determinant of behaviour. Social influence/norms (i.e. the opinions of important others) could also influence behaviour. (Cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, pp. 3-4, 12.) 5
Plastic bottles do not belong in a bin. Recycling is not only better for the environment; it’s also better for the country. This statement is trying to persuade the reader to recycle plastic bottles by appealing to [1] [2] [3]
a certain attitude of the reader. the reader’s behavioural intention. a certain value system of the reader.
Document designers could use the value system of the target reader to determine relevant arguments for the target reader. In the example above the advert is aimed at those readers who place a high premium on the value “a clean world”. This terminal value “a clean world” is used to support a change of attitude, namely to recycle plastic bottles, because it is better for the environment. (Cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, p. 8.) 6
Which one of the following statements is NOT correct? [1] [2] [3]
Beliefs can be right or wrong. Persuasive texts can try to correct incorrect beliefs. Beliefs can be changed very easily with the help of a persuasive text.
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The aim of persuasive texts is to change the reader’s attitude with the ultimate goal to change the reader’s behaviour. How do we change attitude? By influencing the beliefs that underlie the attitude or by introducing new beliefs that can become primary beliefs. Persuasive texts can try to change incorrect beliefs. It is not easy to change beliefs, and not all persuasive texts are successful in changing reader’s beliefs. Readers have also become very distrustful of persuasive texts and this has led to some resistance to persuasive texts. It would be extremely unrealistic to assume that simply because there are many written persuasive texts, they all succeed in their goals. (Cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, pp. 3-5, as well as p. 24 of the study guide.) 7
Which one of the following does NOT represent a strategy to change beliefs about drinking? [1] [2] [3]
the writer gives more weight to the accepted advantages of drinking the writer adds new disadvantages of drinking the writer increases the probability that drinking will definitely result in a particular negative consequence
Writers of health campaign texts can employ any of the following strategies when they want to emphasise the undesirable consequences associated with an unhealthy behaviour (such as excessive drinking):
add new disadvantages of the undesired behaviour weaken the alleged advantages of the undesired behaviour give more weight to the accepted disadvantages (not advantages) of the undesired behaviour give less weight to the accepted advantages of the undesired behaviour increase the probability that the disadvantages will indeed occur decrease the probability that the advantages will occur
(Cf. document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, p. 5) 8
Topics that deal with sex, violence and death could arouse the reader’s interest because [1] [2] [3]
it is always personally relevant for the reader. it is universally interesting. it always contains a surprise element for the reader.
Topics such as sex, violence, death and wealth are viewed as universally interesting and is therefore more likely to attract attention. This does not necessarily imply that these topics are always personally relevant for the reader or that they always contain a surprise element (cf. Sg, p. 28). 9
Which one of the following is a generally recognised persuasive strategy to counter reader’s resistance? [1] [2] [3]
the use of the likeability heuristic the use of the “person off the street” heuristic the use of the consensus heuristic
Readers have become distrustful of persuasive texts and therefore copywriters resort to other persuasive strategies to counter readers’ resistance. Two strategies that are often used by copywriters to counter reader’s resistance are (i) to disguise their persuasive intent (e.g. advertisements that are presented as informative texts) and (ii) the use of testimonials (where the person “off the street” is used to testify about the quality of the product or service) (cf. Sg, p. 24).
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TEX3701/201/1 10
The heuristic rule “statements by experts can be trusted” is an example of the [1] [2] [3]
consensus heuristic. likeability heuristic. credibility heuristic.
The credibility heuristic refers to the communicator’s expertise and trustworthiness The source’s expertise is the result of his/her knowledge or experience gained through training or his/her profession (Sg, p. 77). The source’s expertise and /or trustworthiness tends to activate heuristics such as “credible sources can be trusted” (cf. the chapter on “The Elaboration Likelihood Model” in the e-reserves, p. 140). 11
A reader who accepts a persuasive message on the basis of who the sender of the message is, is an example of persuasion based on [1] [2] [3]
the central route of information processing. the peripheral route of information processing. the systematic processing of the message.
Readers who accept a viewpoint as a result of scrutinising the arguments in the text, engage in a central route of information processing (also systematic processing of a text). Readers who are persuaded on the basis of the characteristics of a sender (such as an attractive or credible source) or affective cues (such as beautiful photographs), follow the peripheral route of information processing (also heuristic processing of a text). This means that readers’ acceptance of the point of view is the result of the nonargumentative characteristics of the persuasive text (such as the sender’s features), and not because of the evaluation of the arguments in the text. We identify the following heuristics: the consensus heuristic, the multiple argument heuristic, the likeability heuristic and the credibility heuristic. In the example above peripheral cues/heuristics are applied by focussing on the characteristics of the sender in an effort to persuade the reader to yield to the persuasive message (cf. Sg, p. 33 and the chapter on “The Elaboration Likelihood Model” in the ereserves, p. 140). 12
According to the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of Petty and Cacioppo, yielding to the message of a persuasive text can take place via the …………………….. route, where readers will scrutinise the arguments, or via the ………………… route, where readers will focus on the non-argumentative features of a text. [1] [2] [3]
peripheral; central central; peripheral heuristic; central
The central route of information processing (also referred to as systematic processing) relies on the scrutinising of the arguments in a persuasive text, while the peripheral route of processing (also referred to as heuristic processing) relies on the non-argumentative characteristics of the persuasive text, e.g. peripheral cues/heuristics such as the source’s credibility and attractiveness (cf. Sg, pp. 31-32). 13
Which one of the following statements is correct? [1] [2] [3]
High-involvement readers are more influenced by both strong and weak arguments. Low-involvement readers are more susceptible to peripheral cues. Low-involvement readers are more influenced by weak arguments.
High-involvement readers (i.e. readers who are motivated and able to evaluate the arguments in the message) are more influenced by the quality of the arguments, i.e. strong arguments are more likely to persuade high-involvement readers than weak arguments. Low-involvement readers (i.e. readers who do not invest cognitive effort to evaluate the arguments) are more influenced by
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peripheral cues/heuristics, for example non-argumentative cues such as the credibility or likeability of the source (cf. the chapter on “The Elaboration Likelihood Model” in the e-reserves, pp. 140141). 14
Which one of the following statements is correct? [1] [2] [3]
Rhetorical figures in advertisements could arouse positive feelings towards the advertised products. Use of rhetorical figures in persuasive texts enhances the reader’s resistance to the text. Rhetorical figures in advertisements always evoke positive feelings towards the advertised product.
The use of rhetorical figures in persuasive texts usually evokes some form of emotional response from the receiver. The use of rhetorical figures in the text is, however, not always successful in arousing positive emotions/feelings (cf. Sg, p. 35). 15
Which one of the following options is correct? The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Petty en Cacioppo is a model of how readers process [1] [2] [3]
all texts cognitively. persuasive texts. informative texts.
The ELM is a dual-process persuasion model that explains the two routes of the persuasion process (cf. Sg, pp. 31-34). 16
Which one of the following statements is correct? [1] [2] [3]
The central route of processing is activated when elaboration is relatively low. The amount of elaboration is influenced by the reader’s motivation and ability to process the arguments in the text. Peripheral-route persuasion comes about through issue-relevant thinking.
The central route of information processing is determined by two factors: the reader’s ability to scrutinise the arguments in the text and the reader’s motivation to scrutinise the arguments. This means that the central route of processing is activated when elaboration (i.e. the systematic thinking about the information in the text) is relatively high. Several factors influence the reader’s ability and motivation to engage in elaboration. Can you list these factors? (cf. Sg, p. 33). When the reader’s motivation and ability to evaluate the information in the text, is low, readers tend to resort to mental shortcuts, such as peripheral cues/heuristics, to process the information in the text. 17
Which one of the following is an example of a persuasive text which attempts to hide the sender’s persuasive intention? [1] [2] [3]
advertisements advertorials health campaign texts
One of the techniques that writers of persuasive texts employ to counter readers’ resistance and distrust of persuasive texts is to disguise persuasive texts as informative texts. One such example is advertorials which are presented as an informative text while the intention of the sender is to persuade. Writers disguise their persuasive texts as informative texts to hide the persuasive intention of the sender and to lure the reader into reading the text (cf. Sg, p. 24).
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TEX3701/201/1 18
The persuasive power of humour in advertisements works primarily via [1] [2] [3]
experiential processing of the information. central processing of the information. systematic processing of the information.
Experiential processing differs from the central and peripheral processing of the information in the sense that experiential processing is informed by the receiver’s feeling towards the product. This feeling is translated into an attitude towards the product. The use of humour in persuasive texts usually evokes some form of emotional response from the receiver (cf. Sg, p. 35). 19
Which of the following statements is correct? [1] [2] [3]
Readers who have prior knowledge of a topic have to make an extra cognitive effort in order to understand the content better. The more prior knowledge a reader has, the less he/she has to rely on the text to construct a mental representation of the text. Prior knowledge of a topic leads to a decrease in the development of a person’s schemata.
Readers with prior knowledge about a topic find it easier to remember the content of a text and their mental schemata is also more developed and elaborated. Readers who have prior knowledge of a topic have to put in less cognitive effort to comprehend the text and they rely less on the text to construct a mental representation of the text (cf. Sg, pp. 30-31). 20
Pieter believes that the Honda Civic is a very good car because his father drove one. This is an example of [1] [2] [3]
a cognitive-based attitude. an affective-based attitude. a norm-based attitude.
The belief about the Honda Civic being ‟a very good car” is not based on facts (i.e. cognitive information) but on affective or emotional information (cf. the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”, p. 1).
2.
Assignment 02
QUESTION 1 1.1
Target group: Parents or adults who work. Justification: The advert focuses on realising your dreams by taking out an Old Mutual life policy./ The testimonial and visual image refers to a parent who took out an Old Mutual life policy to fulfil her son’s dream of becoming a pilot. (2)
1.2
Content strategy: Surprise element
(1)
See the discussion in par. 4.2.3 of the study guide (p. 42) on why the headline could be regarded as unusual or surprising. 1.3
Desirability claim: An Old Mutual policy can realise your dreams.
(2)
The desirability claim refers to the intended desirable outcome/consequence, namely that Old Mutual can realise your dreams for your children even if you have passed on (cf. Sg, p. 67).
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1.4
Reader’s noncommitment zone: The headline uses a surprise element and this forces the reader to read the advert to make sense of the headline. It is very unusual for a 10 year old to become a pilot and this violation of the reader’s expectations lures the reader into the advert in order to make sense of the mismatch between the surprising information and the reader’s prior knowledge. The headline makes no obvious reference to the name of the product (Old Mutual policy) and this could imply that the reader will feel neutral about the headline, i.e. the reader will not outrightly reject or accept the viewpoint but will be enticed to read the advert to decipher the headline. (Cf. pp. 41-42 of the study guide.) (3)
1.5
Structural technique: end-means-structure Justification: In the body copy (and visual image) a desirable consequence/outcome (the end/goal) is depicted, namely to realise your dreams, in this case to realise the son’s dream to become a pilot. The means to reach the desired goal, in the form of the Old Mutual life policy, are then provided in the body copy (cf. pp. 46-47 of the study guide). (3) Please note: In your motivation, you need to indicate the goal and the means to achieve the desired goal. The difference between the end-means structure and the problem-solution structure is the desirability or undesirability of the situation: in the end-means structure a desirable situation is depicted (such as fulfilling your dreams), in the problem-solution structure an undesirable situation is described (such as having flu or money problems). (See the discussion on pp. 46-47 of the study guide.)
1.6
Type of heuristic: Credibility heuristic/”Person in the street” heuristic Heuristic rule: “If it works for her, it could work for me” Justification: The “person” in the street” could be seen as a credible witness because she obtains her expertise on the basis of experience; that is by having been an Old Mutual customer. Who better to say how good a product or service is than the one who has used it/who has experienced it? The more the reader recognises herself/himself in the witness, the more the reader will be convinced that the policy will do the same for her/him. (See pp. 76-78 of the study guide.) (4)
1.7
Value appeal: This advert makes an indirect appeal to parents to secure the future of their children (by planning ahead). (See p. 22 of the study guide.) (2)
1.8
Visual image as argument: The visual image provides some form of photographic proof that the product (Old Mutual policy) could in all probability lead to the desired consequence (i.e. making your dreams come true). (See p. 73 of the study guide.) (2)
1.9
Style technique: Any one of the following style elements was accepted: The self-referencing technique OR the direct address method Justification for self-referencing technique: The copywriter tries to activate the prior knowledge and experiences of the reader with the statement “We all have dreams”. By tapping into the reader’s supposed dreams for their children (or themselves) the information becomes more personal and relevant which increases the probability that the reader will scrutinise the arguments in the advert. Justification for direct address method: By addressing the reader directly (with the word “you”), the reader experiences the information as more relevant and personal. By addressing the reader directly, the reader will apply the information to themselves. (See pp. 59-60 of the study guide.) (2)
1.10
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Type of evidence: Testimonial evidence Justification: This advert uses a “person in the street” witness (an Old Mutual customer) to give her personal experience in support of the claim (i.e. that an Old Mutual life policy can realise your dreams). (2)
TEX3701/201/1 1.11
The message content is directed at low-self monitors. Justification: In this advert the reader is provided with testimonial evidence in an attempt to persuade the reader to accept the propagated point of view. There are no claims that pertain to the image the reader will acquire if he/she uses the product/service. Low-self monitors are more sensitive to claims that relate to the features of the product than image claims. (See pp. 67-68 of the study guide.) (2) [25]
QUESTION 2 2.1
Target audience: Anyone who smoke. Justification: The text makes reference to adults and teenagers who smoke.
(2)
2.2
Two style techniques: the use of the direct address method (use of the pronoun “you”) and the use of questions (see pp. 59-61 of the study guide.) (2)
2.3
The persuasive message could be described as a one-sided campaign message. Justification: The brochure only includes arguments that support the writer’s view (i.e. that smoking is bad for your health), and no counterarguments are included (e.g. that smoking could be seen as “cool”, improves concentration, etc.). (See p. 103 of the study guide for a discussion on message sidedness.) (2)
2.4
The brochure uses a loss-framed message appeal in the first half of the brochure whereby the undesirable consequences that will follow if the reader does not perform the recommended behaviour (namely to stop smoking) are accentuated. Under the heading “Do you smoke” the undesirable consequences are listed, such as lung cancer, heart diseases and eventually death. Multiple “losses” are presented in the text in an effort to persuade the reader to comply with the advocated behaviour. In the second half of the brochure (under the heading “Do you want to stop?”), a gain-framed message approach is followed, whereby the desirable consequences (benefits) are depicted if the reader performs the recommended behaviour (i.e. to stop smoking), for example: risk of lung cancer and heart diseases will be reduced; oxygen levels improve, taste and smells improve, coughing declines, etc.. Multiple benefits (both short and long term) are presented in support of the advocated behaviour. (See p. 99 of the study guide for a discussion on message framing.) (4)
2.5
Severity: Perceived severity refers to the seriousness of the health threat. How serious are the effects of smoking? The risk factor of severity is addressed in this brochure under the heading “Smoking is the leading preventable cause of death in the world”. A strong fear appeal is evoked here by repeatedly articulating smoking as one of the leading causes of death in SA. A number of smoking-related diseases are explicitly listed (such as heart disease and lung cancer), highlighting the severe consequences of smoking. The severity is also depicted in the extent and frequency of smoking-related deaths, namely 55 deaths per day; 1 in every 2 users will die of smoking-related diseases. Perceived susceptibility: Perceived susceptibility refers to how probable it is for the target reader to be susceptible to the health threat (in this case smoking). The risk factor perceived susceptibility is addressed under the heading “The burden of smoking in SA”. Under this heading, it is clearly indicated, by way of percentages, that nearly a quarter of adults and teenagers are susceptible to smoking. The perceived susceptibility could have been extended to include those social factors that make people susceptible to smoking, such as peer pressure, to look “cool”, etc. In terms of how probable it is for smokers to be exposed to the dangers of smoking, the text makes a convincing argument (by way of statistical evidence) that smokers are more susceptible to heart diseases, pulmonary diseases and lung cancer than non-smokers.
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Efficacy: Self-efficacy refers to the extent to which the reader is capable of performing the recommended behaviour (i.e. to stop smoking). Self-efficacy is not addressed in the brochure. The title of the brochure makes of reference to an efficacy component (“Do you need help”), but there is no indication how smokers should go about to stop smoking. An efficacy component could include relevant health interventions/programmes such as healthy alternatives to cigarettes (such as ecigarettes), support from family and friends, etc. (6) (See pp. 88-89 and 102 of the study guide for a discussion of these risk factors.) 2.6
2.7
Example of negative economic incentive: More than 2.5 million working days are lost each year due to smoking-related diseases. (See p. 100 of the study guide.)
(1)
The processing will take place via the central route. Justification: The target audience will consider the pros and cons of the suggested behaviour, for instance, how much trouble it is to follow the recommended behaviour, i.e. to stop smoking; or what are the health benefits or risks of following or ignoring the recommendations. The text is very straightforward and no peripheral clues such as a credible or likeable source endorsing the message that could trigger peripheral processing are provided. (See pp. 31-34 of the study guide.) (2)
2.8
Some of the illustrations could include, but not limited to, the following:
2.9
Images that will evoke a strong fear appeal (for example images of a smoker’s damaged lungs) motivating the reader to look for ways to avoid the danger. Images that clearly depict the target group (images of adults and teenagers who smoke). Before and after pictures which provide visual proof to the reader of the harmful effects of smoking. (2)
Some content changes could include, but not limited to, the following:
Inclusion of an efficacy component, where it is indicated how the reader can go about to stop smoking. Inclusion of a two-sided message appeal, i.e. inclusion of opposing arguments, which are then refuted to highlight the benefits of the recommended behaviour. Inclusion of testimonial evidence or credible sources to endorse the message and thereby improving the quality of the arguments (readers tend to accept the claims from credible sources more easily). Inclusion of anecdotal evidence for a more personal perspective. (4)
(See pp. 109-110 of the study guide.) [25]
3.
EXAMINATION GUIDELINES
The examination paper will count 50 marks and will consist of three questions: Question 1 (10 marks) Study learning units 2 and 3 as well as the document on “Attitudes and behaviour”. Familiarise yourself with the multiple choice questions in assignment 01 in order to prepare you for the multiple questions that will be asked in the examination. Ten multiple choice questions are set and will count 10 marks towards your mark for the examination.
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TEX3701/201/1 Question 2 (20 marks) Study learning units 4-7 well in preparation for the exam. You also need to familiarise yourself with the kind of questions that were asked in question 1 of Assignment 02. Familiarise yourself with:
the choice of content, structural, style and visual elements that message designers could use to attract and maintain attention. (Learning unit 4) the choice of content, style and structural elements that designers could employ to ease comprehension and motivate readers to evaluate the arguments. (Learning unit 5) the quality of the arguments to influence yielding, i.e. pragmatic argumentation, the desirability and probability claims, the various argument types (such as anecdotal, statistical and authoritative evidences) and argument strategies (such as hard sell, soft sell, fear appeals) in support of the various claims, and visual images as arguments (Learning unit 6). choice of heuristics and its potential influence on yielding (Learning unit 7).
It is important that you clearly identify the various content, style, structural and visual elements that could be used to attract and maintain the reader’s attention. Complete Activity 4.4 (p. 51) to familiarise yourself with the various strategies/techniques that are used to attract the reader’s attention. Similarly, you should be able to identify those content, style and structural elements that are used to ease comprehension and to influence readers to evaluate the arguments in the text. Complete Activity 5.2 (p. 62) to identify the various strategies that are used to ease comprehension and motivate the reader to evaluate the arguments. Similarly, do Activity 6.5 (p. 73) to identify the various content, structural, style and visual strategies that are used to enhance yielding to the point of view. You should be able to identify the various text elements (content, structure, style and visual images) in terms of the various functions they could perform in the text (such as attracting attention, to ease comprehension, to motivate the reader to scrutinize the arguments or enhance yielding to the point of view). Question 3 (20 marks) Study learning units 8 and 9 well in preparation for the exam. Familiarise yourself with the kind of questions that were asked in question 2 of Assignment 02. For the examination, you will have to analyse the rhetorical strategies used in a brochure. Familiarise yourself with the following persuasive strategies:
message framing fear appeals (in particular the notions severity, susceptibility and self-efficacy) message sidedness metaphors credible sources
You also need to familiarise yourself with the difference between advertisements and health campaign texts. You should be able to motivate how a brochure could be improved. Your motivation should give evidence of a theoretical and/or empirical insight in the persuasion process. Your motivation for your choice of content, structural, style and visual elements should make reference to relevant persuasion strategies and/or processes. Should you encounter any problems with the study material in your preparation for the examination, please do not hesitate to contact me. Best Prof. EO Saal Tel.: 012 429 6737
[email protected]
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